Principles of social control theory

Principles of social control theory Social Control Theories. Many criminological theories always explain why do people commit crime, or to find out what are the most influential factors motivate people commit crime and violate the social norms. Instead, social control theories have been already assumed humans are potentially committing crime. Moreover, the social control or social bond theory is emphasizing why a person do not be a criminal. In social control theorists assumptions, individuals have the capacity to violate the laws rather than obey the laws. Law-abiding behaviors are not the nature of human beings. People choose to commit crime because the forces or constrains of society is not strongest enough. It portrays people are standing in the dilemma between deviance and conformity. It shows the tension of everyone either commit deviant act or accepts the norms. Therefore, social control theorists propose a few elements to pull people back from the side of deviance, especially relationship, commitments, values, norms, and beliefs. Famil y and peer group become a crucial agencies that affect peoples conduct. Albert J Reiss The understanding of those early control theorists arguments are very important because they presented a framework or some basic propositions within the many theories of delinquency and crime. Each social control theorist had also been done an empirical study of their findings to support their point of views. Starting from an article wrote by Albert J Reiss (1951), his argument might be reproduced from Freuds concept of ego or superego mainly. He aims at noticing the prediction of probation revocation among juvenile offenders. He thought youths have a lower personal controls that might more likely to become juvenile delinquency. That is, those younger people lack of ability to refrain from desiring their needs when having conflict with the rules or norms of the society. Nevertheless, his explanation of juvenile delinquency is weak when discussing the relationship between probation revocation and school performance as truancy. Jackson Toby In 1957, Jackson Toby, a second social control theorist, offered a new concept called stake in conformity which as the fundamental mechanism to affect delinquents comportment. He also agreed that people are intrinsically and temptingly rupturing the laws, especially all youths. Some of them are having a high risk of the violation of laws due to this temptation. He believes students perform well in school not only they are being punished by school, but also endanger their future chances of success. Under the special academic-oriented circumstance, if the society allows students having a better career path when they got an excellent school result; therefore, some students who do poorly in school might have a great chance of committing crime because they seems lose lesser things than others. Apart from the academic result of an individual is an influential factor, peer support for deviant act could lead those youths with low stakes in conformity as well. However, even youths have low st ake in conformity, they are not become delinquents when lacking of peer support. F. Ivan Nye In 1958, Nye then concentrated on the issue of family relationship. He though that family is a single most crucial root of social control for adolescents. He divided diffent forms of control such as direct control, internal control, and indirect control. Direct control means the obvious restriction or punishments of a person. Internal control refered to a inward monitor or consciences. Indirect control linked to affectional or emotional identification with parents, noncriminals or legal codes. He stated that if all the above controls are sufficient, then those adolescents are more conform the rules of society. Nyes study had been tested by an empircal experiment. However, his experiment had been challenged by Toby already. First, altough Nye called the sample group as most delinquent, but many criminologist called them nondelinquents. Due to the sample group was selected in high school which was not included any youths age 15 or younger, and any youths age 16 with dropped out of scho ol. Furthermore, the questions being asked in questionnaires were too trivial such as taking things worth less than $2, and damaging public or private property. Therefore, Nye cannot recognize the strongly relationship between family bonding and serious delinquent behaviours. Walter C. Reckless In 1961, another social control theorist called Reckless, who proposed a containment theory. The main concept is that all individuals are influenced by different forces such as social pressure, social pulls, biological/ psychological pushes. Those forces are driving people to commit deviant act. However, these forces are againsted by both external and inner containments. For instance, social pressure can be defined as living conditions, family conflict, minority group, status, and lack of opportunities. Then the term social pulls is refered to the accepted norm of all individuals from their companions, criminal subculture, mass media and so on. Biological or psychological pushes can be easily linked to how those biological and psychological factors affect people fail to conform the norms of society, such as restlessness, inner tension, aggressiveness and so on. On the contrary, external containment is talking about the surroundings of a person. For instance, how parents or support gr oups promote right moral values, discipline, enforce the sense of identity and so on. Moreover, inner containment are those invisible stuffs which internalized our self-control; that related to how the goals/ abilities of a person against to commit crime. David Matza Travis Hirschi Matzas Delinquency and Drift (1964) and Hirschis Causes of Delinquency (1969) also advoacted two famous concepts in the later development of control theories. Alternatively, Matza has been already protraried the image of drifter. Emphasizing how social conditions shape people become a drifter. (However, he did not mention about what kinds of constraints and control that keep youngsters from drifting.) In Hirschis theory, he proposed four main social bonds that could determine ones involvement in delinquency, namely attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. Attachment contains the interpersoanl and emotional bonds among others, especially parents and teachers. Commitment refers to how youths make use of the time, energy, effort expended in traditional path of success, such as saving money for the future and abtaining a high academic qualification. Involvement means the degree of ones involvement in those conventional activities, such as school, recreation, and family. Due to so ciety will share common moral values normally, therefore, beliefs of a person are very important. People might more easily commit criminal act if these moral values are absent or weakened. In short, Hirschis social bond theory emphasized all people are potential criminals, however, people will conform the norm or obey the law because they do not want to destroy the bondings with others. Criticisms There are few criticisms on social control theory. First, according to the assumption of it, social control theorists assumed human are potential law-violators. What if the youths commit crime just because they are fun? Another issuse is that such theories cannot be explained the causes of gang delinquency and adult criminality. Furthermore, most studies were referring the involvement of trivial offenses of nondelinquent youths. Hirschi also confessed that delinquents actually active in conventional events, which rejected his original theory (Vold Bernard, 1986). Social Learning perspectives Edwin Sutherland Differential Association Theory was the most direct and clear theory that proposed by Edwin Sutherland in 1947 from social learning perspectives. In 1978, Sutherland and Cressey consisted nine propositions of Differential Association Theory: 1. Criminal behaviour is learned 2. Criminla behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a process 3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups 4. When criminal behaviour is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes very simple; the specific direction of the motives, drives, rationlization, and attitudes 5. The specific directions of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favourable or unfavourable 6. The person becomes delinquent because of an excess of favourable definitions to violation of law over unfavourable definitions to law-violation 7. Differential association may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 8. Process of learning criminal behaviour by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms involved in any other learning 9. While criminal act is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values (Sutherland Cressey, 1978, pp.80-82.) Here will be discussed each propositions respectively. First, it is clearly stated that criminal act is not inborn which is learned. Then, Sutherland provided how people learned to become delinquent which is learned in interaction with others, especially family, friends, and colleagues. Also, techniques of commiting crime are needed which are sometimes quite complicated/simple such as how to unlock a safe or steal a car on the street. Moral justifications also crucial that make people think their acts are reasonable. For example, a poor person steal foods in supermarket because they do not have money to buy enough foods to their sons. Therefore, they will justify they act as make sense. Fifth, it refers to the views of legal codes from an individiuals. The person may not want to obey the law because such laws are just controlling him/her, and killing his/her free will. The favourable definitions of law violation and the unfavourable definitions of law violation are two sides on the b alance that lead a person commit crime if the favourable definitions of law violation is excess. Moreover, how often are criminal contacts made, how long do the contacts last, and how significant to the individual are the criminal contacts are always being considered. Sutherland (1978) also though that there will be greater the chance to commit crime if people have been contacted criminals since early childhood. Role modeling or direct teaching is another way to learn the criminal acts. In chinese words, that means one who mixes with vermilion will turn red, one who touches pitch shall be defiled therewith; which implies good companions have good influence while bad ones have bad influence. Law-violation behaviours cannot be explained by fulfilling those general needs becauses those criminal acts are illogical. In brief, he emphasized the the significance of personal contact, and all individuals are follower. Criticisms There will be discussed a few main critiques of this theory. Differential association theory neglected that why some youths seems exposed to delinquent definitions, but finally they choose to stop the delinquent acts. Another major criticism is the problem of the principle differential association, which assumes criminal behaviours to be rational and systematics. However, this theory is very hard to illustrate the acts of those psychopathic killing or serial rapists (Sigel, 2009). Also, delinquents might seek like-minded peers rather than follow others which drafted another relationship between deviant peers and criminality.

Analysis Of Sir Gawain Essay -- essays research papers

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight contains many themes. Some of these themes are more obvious than others. Love, lust, loyalty, deceit, trust, courage, virtue, and righteousness are most of the themes within the poem. There are some more that are hidden within the concepts of the ideas that the poem presents. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, translated by John Gardner, many different themes are addressed throughout the story. The translation by John Gardner portrays these themes by using specific characters, medieval symbolism, and various settings within the story.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a great work of medieval literature. The story is considered to be verse romance. There are not many solid facts on the story. The story was composed in the second half of the fourteenth century. It is likely that Sir Gawain and the Green Knight was written around 1375. The author of the piece remains unknown, but we do know of the northwestern dialect of Middle English with which he wrote the poem. The unknown author also consciously wrote in an old-fashioned style. The author is usually referred to as the Gawain poet or the Pearl poet. Three poems were included with Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. â€Å"Pearl†, â€Å"Patience†, and â€Å"Purity† were all with Sir Gawain and the Green Knight in the same manuscript. This is the reason the author is named as the Pearl poet, in addition to the Gawain poet. All four poems were uniquely named Cotton Nero A.X. This is due to the manuscript’s previous owner , Sir Robert Cotton. Cotton supposedly acquired the manuscript from Yorkshire bibliophile Henry Savile (1568-1617), but its whereabouts before then are unknown (Grolier).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sir Gawain and the Green Knight was first edited and published in 1839 by Madden, whose entire name in uncertain. He called the untitled poem Syr Gawayn and the Grene Knyyt. The poem did not receive much attention at all until the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1916, George Lyman Kittredge’s ongoing study of the poem contained extremely valuable research of the sources and analogues of the poem. Many other authors focused on the text, language, and possible authors of the work. In the 1930s and ‘40s there was a rise of mythic criticism of the poem, as many scholars sought to interpret Sir Gawain and the Green Knight with new knowledge of medie... ...ces, and the most complex in intention, exhibiting a subtlety of presentation and density of implication which we have only begun to appreciate.† In other words, we have only skimmed the thoughtful and meaningful intentions of the Gawain poet. We have only started to appreciate and understand the poem. All in all, there is so much more to find within the piece, more lessons to be learned, and morals to be taught. Gardner, John. â€Å"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.† Elements of Literature. Orlando,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Florida: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1997: 161-172. Gibbons, Frances Vargas. Sir Gawain’s Mentors. London, England: Landmark Press,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1998: articles 1-2. Samuels, Jonathan. The Gawain Poet: Criticism and Symbolism in SGGK. Ed. Harold   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Morgan. New York, New York: Johnston Press, 1987. â€Å"Gardner, John Champlin, Jr.† The New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Dallas,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Texas: Grolier Inc. CD-ROM. Disc 1. â€Å"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.† Galenet. Gale research 1999   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

The Structural Compartmentaion of Mammalian Cells

The structural compartmentation of mammalian cells and the differing functions of these compartments. All mammals are eukaryotes and therefore have eukaryotic cells. These cells contain several organelles suited to a specific function they carry out within the cell. These eukaryotic cells contain a Nucleus, Mitochondria, Ribosomes, Rough and Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and various other organelles. Most of the organelles are separated from each other by a membrane, these membranes are based on lipid bilayers that are similar to each other.The organelles membrane is there to keep the contents of each organelle separate from the rest of this cell. The membrane consists of a lipid bilayer that may have channels in order to allow the transport of specific molecules which are needed somewhere else in the cell. An example of this is proteins produced by the ribosomes are then moved to the Golgi apparatus in which they are processed and then sent to the correct part of the cell. | Fig 1 – Diagram of a nucleusSource: http://cdn. nursingcrib. om| The nucleus is a large organelle surrounded by a double membrane nuclear envelope; the nuclear envelope contains many pores to allow substances such as tRNA and mRNA to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus contains most of the cells genetic material in the form of DNA. The DNA and proteins that make up the contents of the nucleus is known as the chromatin. DNA stored in the nucleus codes for different amino acids and proteins to be produced, depending on which genes are being expressed decides what proteins are produced and ultimately the function of the cell.At the centre of the nucleus is a nucleolus which is where ribosomes are manufactured. A diagram of a nucleus can be seen in figure 1. The double membrane keeps the nucleus separate from all the other organelles and serves as a barrier to prevent molecules diffusing freely into and out of the nucleus. The outer membrane has a str ucture similar to the rough endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes scattered across it which are used to make proteins in a process known as translation. The mitochondria are the site in a cell that generates most of the cells energy in the form of ATP.Oxygen is used in a process called aerobic respiration to produce lots of ATP. The mitochondrion consists of an outer and inner membrane composed of phospholipid bilayers. The inner membrane contains several folding’s forming a structure known as cristae. The cristae increase the surface area of the mitochondria allowing more ATP to be produced. The part enclosed by the inner membrane is the matrix. This matrix contains most of the mitochondria’s proteins. The matrix contains several enzymes needed to synthesise ATP. The ATP produced in the mitochondria is transported to other parts of the cell that require energy.The ribosome is an important organelle for protein synthesis, it is the site at which the genetic code is conv erted into protein molecules. It is responsible for a process called translation which converts mRNA into an amino acid chain. The mRNA determine the order of the tRNA molecules that bind to the codons. The order of these tRNA molecule ultimately decide the amino acid chain that will be produced and hence the protein being produced. The proteins produced detatch themselves from the ribosome and move to other parts of the cell where they are needed.The ribosome is very large composed of many molecules including RNA and proteins. The ribosome is composed of two sub-units, a larger one and a smaller one, each of which have distinct shapes. As protein synthesis is very important to cells there are usually large numbers of ribosomes found throughout a cell. Ribosomes are usually found floating freely around the cell however they are sometimes found bound to the endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum is the transport network for molecules. It is made up of several tubes and sacs .The space inside of the endoplasmic reticulum is the lumen. The function of the endoplasmic reticulum depends on the cell type. It is comprised of a rough endoplasmic reticulum and a smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to its surface which is what causes it to be rough. â€Å"The membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum forms large double membrane sheets that are located near, and continuous with the outer layer of the  nuclear envelope†[1]. Proteins are synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for synthesizing lipids, metabolizing carbohydrates and regulating calcium levels. Lysosomes are also found in most eukaryotic cells. They contain several digestive enzymes used to break down worn out cellular components and bacteria. Lysosomes are highly packed spherical vacuoles but have a large variation in size depending on the materials they have taken up for digestion. The lysosome removes any unwanted material inside the cell by secreting these digestive enzymes onto them. Lysosomes protect the cell from foreign bacteria which could be harmful.They operate in a low PH which is maintained by a membrane around the lysosome, this reduces the risk of the enzymes digesting their own cell. The Golgi apparatus packages proteins inside the cell and are then sent to their destination. The Golgi apparatus is found within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It is composed of stacks known as cisternae. â€Å"The Golgi apparatus is integral in modifying, sorting and packaging these macromolecules for cell secretion†[2]. Proteins synthesized by the rough endoplasmic reticulum are modified in the Golgi apparatus.The Golgi apparatus is also responsible for transporting lipids around the cells and also producing lysosomes. All of these organelles have different functions and structures but work together to determine the overall function of the cell. The amount of each organelle greatly depends on its function, for example muscle cells will contain lots of mitochondria to produce more ATP as muscles require large amounts of energy. Bibliography [1] Shibata, Yoko; Voeltz, Gia K. ; Rapoport, Tom A. (2006). â€Å"Rough Sheets and Smooth Tubules†. Cell  126(3): 435–439. [2] â€Å"Regulated Secretion (Golgi): The Movie†. North Dakota State University.

Race, Class, And Identity - 873 Words

I attended the panel on Friday, October 23rd. Discussion at the event centered around race, class, and identity. The introduction mentioned the tragic event in Charleston and that they decided to do the seminars that weekend in order to talk about these issues now rather than wait for something to happen like Charleston’s incident. The whole purpose of this discussion was to determine how we can start changing how race and class is identified and judged in our community. One suggested way to start encouraging more acceptance and understanding is through creating spaces for genuine dialogue. There are facades of these safe spaces; these places are politically correct on the outside, but they contain ill-will on the inside. To fix that, panel members recommended truly talking and truly listening. Having honest discussions is key to making people more sympathetic to others as well as important to opening up the floor to differing opinions. To have these discussions, vulnerability must be present; everyone must be willing to step out of their comfort zones. These talks will help stop the fear and aggression in communities. While all of that sounds lovely and very productive to shedding light on issues, I’m not sure how that would work well. It’s easy for us, at a Christian university with a very privileged majority, to openly talk about our opinions and struggles. Spreading out into a community and trying to get honest thoughts on any issue is like pulling teeth. Even if weShow MoreRelatedJulie Bettie s Women Without Class : Girls, Race, And Identity1190 Words   |  5 Pagescultural politics, gender, sexuality, race, and ethnicity. In her book, Women Without Class: Girls, Race, and Identity, the author Julie Bettie gives a detailed representation of senior high school girls at a California high school. 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